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Stop the Jabiluka Uranium Mine

Songs Of Arnhem Land
(AKA Songs From Arnhem Land)
Artist/Collector:
Lester Hiatt
Label Information:
Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies (AIAS): AIAS 6
Media Type:
LP
Year:
Recorded 1958-1960, released 1966
Availability:
Out of print

Notes: The purpose of this disc is to make available to musicologists raw material collected during an investigation whose orientation was mainly sociological. Between 1958 and 1960 my wife and I spent twenty months at Maningrida, a Government settlement on the mouth of the Liverpool River in northern Arnhem Land. The main groups in residence were the Gunavidji, Nagara, and Burara ("Burara" is a term originally used by people in eastern Arnhem Land for two groups who knew themselves as "Gidjingali" and "Gunadba".), but also present were numbers of Gunbalang, Gunwinggu, Gungoragoni, Janjango, and Djinang. The previous distribution of these tribes is indicated on the accompanying map.

Anthropologists for some time have been aware of cultural differences between eastern and western Arnhem Land. The transition occurs among the Nagara, eastern members of whom tend to associate with the Burara, western members with the Gunavidji. I have included music of both cultures and shall indicate later some of the distinguishing features. But my research aims demanded detailed investigations within one tribe rather than a study of regional variations. I chose the Burara, whose music consequently I know best. Even here I neglected aspects that did not seem directly relevant to my main task.

Side A is eastern Arnhem Land camp music of the Blyth River area; most of side B is western Arnhem Land camp music of the Liverpool River area (although, as I shall explain later, the opening song is eccentric). A few examples of men's secret music complete the second side.

SIDE A

The Burara know seven song cycles (manigai) that they believe ghosts of the dead composed for performance at mortuary rites. Each cycle has a different name, set of verses, and melodic structure. Folk say that the songs were learnt during dreams in which the sleeper's spirit visited his deceased relatives, but no one knows whereabouts this happened. It seems that manigai (a species of the north-eastern Arnhem Land bunggal (See Elkin, A. P., "Arnhem Land Music", Oceania, Vols. XXXIV-XXVI, 1953, p. 97 and 1955, p. 134.)) have been spreading westward, probably through clans extending joint ownership to western neighbours as a gesture of friendship.

Every Burara patri-clan shares, with certain others, one and one only of the seven cycles. The joint owners belong to the same moiety and in every case include people other than Burara. Thus five Burara clans of Dua moiety share the Gada song cycle with certain Djinang clans and possibly others further east. The joint owners see themselves as having a common bond (manngadaba manigai arabirawo means 'We have the one mortuary song") and are often trading partners.

Each song has 20 to 40 verses about different totems. A few are totems that created sites on estates of some of the joint owners (White Cockatoo, Crocodile, etc.), but most are not associated with any locality (North-west Monsoon, Evening Star, etc.). Some verses in different songs of the same moiety refer to the same totems but in different words.

Song words are of three types: (a) Words used in ordinary discourse, such as djirimula, a sea-gull. These occur infrequently. (b) Words with analogues in ordinary discourse. Boiboi is a song word, whereas "bara aboiboidjinga" in everyday discourse means "the north-west monsoon is about to blow"; again, wonggo occurs in the Crow song series and means "the speech of the Crows", whereas in ordinary discourse "speech" is wengga (c) Words that are believed to belong to the special language of the dead. They form the largest proportion of words in songs but neither occur in ordinary discourse nor have meanings. Their main function seems to be rhythmical. Early in my investigations I over-taxed the patience of a man from whom I was trying to extract word-for-word translations. After ten minutes or so, he drew on his pipe, blew out the smoke, and said: "Look, these words belong to the spirits of the dead. Maybe my grandfather or great-grandfather knew what they mean. I don't".

The performers necessarily comprise a singer accompanied by a didjeridu player but normally include several men singing in unison with a leader. The people acknowledge one individual as the foremost exponent of each cycle and seek his services even if he belongs to a distant community. But there are others who can take his place, and most men know their own songs well enough to give support. A few, considering themselves to have little musical talent, prefer to beat time or simply listen.

The seven outstanding song leaders in 1960 were old men with good voices who had applied themselves to the task of learning perfectly the words, melodies, and rhythms. Several were Burara, the rest men from further east. When they visited other communities, younger local leaders deferred to them. The position of song leader is not hereditary, and consecutive occupants do not necessarily belong to the same clan.

The Burara practise double disposal of their dead. First they bury the corpse in a shallow grave or expose it on a tree platform. A few hours later men brush those who have been near the body with leaves. Then after a week or so members of the deceased's community burn some of his possessions and pour water over his close relatives. Months later folk recover the desiccated bones and bring them back into the community. A close relative retains the bones for several years. Finally they are placed in a hollow-log coffin, which is buried or left standing upright in the ground.

Throughout the rites people sing the deceased's song cycle, and at the end of each phase the leader intones the names of all the owning clans. The supporting singers are mostly owners but often include others of the same moiety who know the song almost as well as their own and wish to pay their respects. Songs of one moiety are never sung by men of the other, nor performed during their mortuary rites.

Women dance but do not sing. They tend to be best acquainted with movements appropriate to the song of their own clan but are familiar with others and are allowed to dance to songs of either moiety.

Manigai are sung at certain stages in initiation ceremonies. They are also performed around the camp fire for entertainment.

SIDE B

The first three tracks on this side record songs typical of western Arnhem Land, which are sung largely for entertainment around the camp fire. Burara men often paid for their performance prior to and during circumcision ceremonies. (Western Arnhem Land tribes do not practise circumcision). The songs, referred to by the generic term borg (gunborg in the Gunwinggu language), do not appear to have the long tradition and intimate connection with mythology of the eastern Arnhem Land manigai. Neither are they the property of particular clans. In the main they Are creations of the individuals who sing them, though to what extent each song is original or is derived from previous compositions is an open question. A borg singer usually explains that he learnt his song from spirits of the dead during a dream and is unable to give much meaning to its verbal content. He alone sings the song and is regularly accompanied by the same didjeridu player and rhythm-beaters.

Track Number Track Title Track Time Notes
01
Djambidj Song Cycle (Northwest Monsoon, 1-3, White cockatoo, 4-5, and Crow, 6) 0:05:55

Side A: Track 1
Song cycle: Djambidj
Moiety: Dua
Singer:  Angabarabara

The Djambidj cycle contains verses about some 20 totems. This track records three verses selected from the series on North-west Monsoon (Bara), two from White Cockatoo (Ngalilag), and one from Crow (Maralgara). I shall summarize the mythological backgrounds and give the words of the first verses. I shall also give English translations based on informants' translations of verses into the Burara of everyday discourse. It is to be understood that informants' translations are not statements of literal meanings (as many song words have no equivalents in ordinary speech) but elaborations stimulated by verbal cues in a non-grammatical setting. The words evoke rather than state a mythological narrative.

(i) North-west Monsoon (Bara); Verses 1, 2, 3.

Towards the end of the dry season two Eels arise from the sea and remark on the absence of wind. They both spit, and the small wind created informs Bara that it is time for him to come. He appears as a black cloud on the horizon, clenching a dilly-bag between his teeth like a warrior going into battle, and produces the north-west monsoon by farting.

woda boi-boi janei woda boi-boi janei  

Bara is about to come.

madjidja gulabogbog

 

Bara clenches a dilly-bag between his teeth like a warrior going into battle.

djirimula manbargbarg

 

The sea-gull is caught up and taken by the wind.

boja malar-malar

 

The big wind blows.

bolwara nguli mara boi-boi janei

 

Bara is coming to you, members of the Bolwara clan. (Bolwara is one of the joint owners of the Djambidj song cycle).

wunimil gaiguradala

 

Alternative names of Bara (though not used in ordinary discourse).

boja malar-malar

 

The big wind blows.

- - -  

Meaningless sound - the singer said he was just filling in.

bolwara nguli mara boi-boi janei

 

Bara is coming to you, members of the Bolwara clan.

adjamburadja gulabogbog

 

Bara stands as a black cloud on the horizon. ("Gulabogbog" is the name of Bara's clan).

ga-ga-ga

 

Spirits of the dead.

djirimula manbargbarg

 

The sea-gull is caught up and taken by the wind.

angunumba jalarialei

 

Clan names.

ngandjuwa

 

Totemic site at Cape Stewart associated with one of the joint owners of Djambidj.

boi-boi janei

 

Bara is about to come.

gulabogbog adjamburadja

 

Bara stands as a black cloud on the horizon.

(ii) White Cockatoo (Ngalilag); Verses 4, 5.

This totem lives at Cape Stewart near three others: Hollow-log Coffin, Stingray, and Didjeridu. The first resides in a mangrove forest, the second in a hole under the ground, and the third beneath a spring of its own creation. The four regularly communicate (one native said they talk to each other like white people on the telephone). From time to time spirits of the dead play the Didjeridu and sing Djambidj, while White Cockatoo and Hollow-log Coffin dance. Stingray stays in his hole.

wangurunga goja

 

Wangurunga is an alternative name for White Cockatoo.

gulaba radja

 

No meaning.

ngwar-ngwar woria

 

"Come, come", say spirits of the dead to a flock of white cockatoos.

mamala djamada

 

No meaning.

gulgulnga

 

White Cockatoo's birth-place.

ngaldjiba goja

 

White Cockatoo's home.

mamala djamada

 

No meaning.

djambara buradjarina

 

No meaning.

ngaldjiba goja

 

White Cockatoo's home.

manila ngaldjana

 

No meaning.

ngwar-ngwar woria

 

"Come, Come", say spirits of the dead to a flock of white cockatoos.

raradjinga goja

 

White Cockatoo eats a vegetable root (raradja in ordinary speech).

gulgulnga

 

White Cockatoo's birth-place.

djambara buradjarina

 

No meaning.

molomoloroja

 

White Cockatoo grows from a babe in the nest to a bird capable of flying. (molo means 'bigger" in ordinary speech).

rulanga goja

 

White Cockatoo perches in a casuarina tree (rula in ordinary speech).

gararag-gararag

 

White Cockatoo raises his yellow crest (gara-gara in ordinary speech).

ngaldjiba goja

 

White Cockatoo's home.

ngarg-ngarg

 

White Cockatoo's call.

wangurunga goja

 

Alternative name for White Cockatoo.

gulaba radja

 

No meaning.

mamala djamada

 

No meaning.

gulgulnga

 

White Cockatoo's birth-place.

(iii) Crow (Maralgara); Verse 6.

Hollow-log Coffin also lives in the sky where he is identified among a particular constellation. The stars around him are a flock of dancing i.e. twinkling) Crows. The wag wag wag sound made by crows (who pick flesh from bodies exposed on tree-platforms) occurs as part of a chant sung during purification rites after a death.

dawara njelar-njelar

 

The Crows play (-dawaradj- is "to play" in ordinary speech).

gaja baranga

 

No meaning.

dawara njelar-njelar

 

The Crows play.

gaja baranga

 

No meaning.

golba barira

 

No meaning.

bojanga budja

 

No meaning.

baigaradalga

 

No meaning.

wonggo

 

The language of the Crows (wengga is "language" in ordinary speech).

maraidjingo

 

Alternative name of Hollow-log Coffin.

rulunga

 

The Crows perch in a casuarina tree.

dawara njelar-njelar

 

The Crows play.

djinbango njinar

 

No meaning.

gora njelar

 

No meaning.

wonggo

 

The language of the Crows.

gaimar budja

 

No meaning.

djinbango njinar

 

No meaning.

gaimar budja

 

No meaning.

wag wag wag

 

The call of the Crows.

gora njelar-njelar

 

No meaning.

wonggo

 

The language of the Crows.

maraidjingo

 

Alternative name of Hollow-log Coffin.

guda bariri

 

No meaning.

02
Gabangora Song Cycle (Catfish and herring, 1-3, and Large Egret, 4) 0:03:21

Side A: Track 2
Song cycle: Gabangora
Moiety: Jiridja
Singer:  Gamboa

The first three verses on this track are from the series about two freshwater totemic fish, Catfish (Gandjal) and Herring (Njalg-njalg), who live on the mainland south of Milingimbi. The fourth verse is from the series on Large Egret (Gomola). I did not investigate the mythology relating to song cycles from which the present and subsequent verses on Side A have been selected. I give words and translations for verse 1.

ga-ga-ga ga

 

No meaning.

ganbilbil abunga

 

No meaning.

ridja mormor

 

No meaning.

badeidjarg abunga

 

Badeijarg is a species of small fish eaten by Catfish and Herring.

ganbilbil

 

No meaning.

djilawurwur

 

Another name for the small fish referred to above.

buramanada

 

No meaning.

ganbilbil abunga

 

No meaning.

djilawurwur

 

Alternative name for small fish.

ridja mormor

 

No meaning.

bolwodja abunga

 

Bolwodja is an alternative name for Herring.

ganda

 

Home of Catfish and Herring (near Gadji, south of Milingimbi).

gudidj miri

 

The tail movements of fish propelling them through the water.

adjuburadja abunga

 

Catfish eats the little fish.

ga-ga-ga ga ga-ga-ga ga

 

No meaning.

gabalja balnja-balnja

 

The little fish hide under floating clumps of weed (gabalma in ordinary speech is "seaweed").

ganbilbil abunga

 

No meaning.

badeidjarg banjina

 

Species of small fish.

bolwodja abunga

 

Alternative name for Herring.

jaugarinja

 

Alternative name for Catfish.

ganbilbil

 

No meaning.

djilawurwur

 

Alternative name for small fish (badeidjarg).

03
Gojulan Song Cycle (Blue blowfly, 1, Ibis, 2, string, 3, and unidentified fish, 4) 0:03:07

Side A: Track 3
Song cycle: Gojulan
Moiety: Dua
Singer:  Mundrug-mundrug

The name of this cycle is also an alternative name for the Morning Star (Banimbir). At dawn each day spirits sing and dance around the Morning Star and send the sun on its way. The four verses on this track are, respectively, from the series about Blue Blowfly (Wurulul), This (Garala), String (Mundun), and an unidentified fish (Walabur). Verse 1 is as follows:

njini-njini

 

Alternative name of Blue Blowfly.

ganara

 

Blue Blowflies buzzing around a dead body.

reibi-reibi

 

Another name for Blue Blowfly.

njini-njini ganara reibi-reibi

 

As above.

gamadigama

 

Name of Blue Blowfly's clan.

wurulul

 

Blue Blowfly's usual name.

njini-njini

 

Alternative name.

bawagara

 

No meaning.

gadjan biribiriju

 

A swarm of Blue Blowflies.

reibi-reibi ganara

 

As above.

ngadji

 

The buzz of Blue Blowfly.

gobolo

 

A carved representation of Blue Blowfly.

boro mor-mor

 

No meaning.

bawagara

 

No meaning.

gadjan biribiriju reibi-reibi

 

A swarm of Blue Blowflies.

ganara ngadji

 

As above.

wurulul

 

Blue Blowfly's usual name.

- - -  

Voice filling in.

reibi-reibi

 

As before.

boro mor-mor

 

No meaning.

- - -  

Voice filling in.

ganara

 

As before.

wurulul

 

As before.

   

Voice filling in.

04
Gada Song Cycle (Wallaby, 1-2, White butterfly, 5, and Brolga, 5) 0:03:22

Side A: Track 4
Song cycle: Gada
Moiety: Dua
Singer: Gangalara

The first two verses are from the series about Wallaby (Gonobolo), the third and fourth about White Butterfly (Bunba), and the fifth on Brolga (Manugudog). I give words and translations for verse 3.

djaba

 

No meaning.

bunba

 

Name of White Butterfly.

ngadjei

 

No meaning.

monei-monei

 

White Butterfly's home.

bira ngadjei

 

No meaning.

monei-monei

 

White Butterfly's home.

djaba gunal miri

 

No meaning.

bunba

 

Name of White Butterfly.

ngadjei

 

No meaning.

monei-monei

 

White Butterfly's home.

bira wanga minjin

 

No meaning.

mira

 

No meaning.

rarg

 

Design on Butterfly's wing.

mira

 

No meaning.

galadagei

 

No meaning.

bunba

 

Name of White Butterfly.

ngadjei djaba

 

No meaning.

monei-monei

 

White Butterfly's home.

gunal miri ngei

 

No meaning.

05
Badaidja Song Cycle (Lightning, 1, Tree-platform, 2, Diamond Dove, 3-4) 0:02:27

Side A: Track 5
Song cycle: Badaidja
Moiety: Dua
Singer:  Anawudjara

The first verse is from the series on Lightning (Anmalbai), the second on Tree-platform (Bela-bela), and the last two on Diamond Dove (Gulodog). Verse 3 is as follows:

raidja bara ngala raidja bara ngala

 

Diamond Dove eats grass seed.

minin borona gaijala djalag marana gaijala ja borona gaijala minin borona gaijala

 

No meaning.

gulodog guladog

 

Name of Diamond Dove.

raidja bara ngala

 

Diamond Dove eats grass seed.

manda bara ngala djalag marana gaijala minin borona gaijala

 

No meaning.

raidja bara ngala

 

Diamond Dove eats grass seed.

gulodog gulodog

 

Name of Diamond Dove.

mando bara ngala

 

No meaning.

06
Wulumunga Song Cycle (Mangrove, 1, Sandfly, 2, Barramundi, 3, and Crocodile, 4) 0:02:50 Side A: Track 6
Song cycle: Wulumunga
Moiety: Jiridja
Singer:  Djuliga

The first verse is from the series about Mangrove (Gunabara), the second about Sandfly (Mingga), the third about Barramundi (Raidjara), and the last two about Crocodile (Maridjula). I have no words for any of these.

07
Borg Song (Diama) 0:04:09 Side B: Track 1
The opening song is unusual in that the singer, named Mulumbug, is Burara. As previously indicated, these people own manigai, and Mulumbug is the only one among them who sings a song of the borg type. Because of marriage irregularities in previous generations, he and several other members of his clan have changed their moiety affiliations in order to bring their own marriages into conformity with the rule of moiety exogamy. This has entailed a serious disturbance of their ritual status, including loss of recognition as joint owners of any mortuary song. I did not embarrass Mulumbug by talking to him about his unfortunate position. But I asked him how he acquired his borg song, and he answered that one night during a dream his deceased brother took him to the bottom of the Blyth River, and there they heard spirits of the dead singing it. Mulumbug has no special associations with Liverpool River folk, though like most of his tribesmen he is familiar with the music of that region. His song, which is undoubtedly the easternmost example of the borg style, is about an edible shellfish (diama) found in large quantities on sand-banks near the mouth of the Blyth River. The only sounds to which he attributes meaning are the initial "Aa. . . ", suggesting ebb and flow of the tide; "andia mara", a magical word used by spirits of the dead to put flesh inside the shells; "Aa aa aa, ee ee ee", signifying the movements of the spirits as they rake the shells into localized beds; and the final "aa. . . ", an expression of nostalgia among the spirits as they think of their living kinsfolk.
08
Borg Song 0:04:27 Side B: Track 2
Sung by Guningbal (a Gunwinggu). Songman assured me that the words of his song have no meaning.
09
Borg Song 0:03:48 Side B: Track 3
Sung by Namanangmanang (a Gunavidji). Songman assured me that the words of his song have no meaning.
10
Borg Song 0:04:46 Side B: Track 4
Sung by Nalambil (Gunbalang). Songman assured me that the words of his song have no meaning.
11
Mandinda ceremony 0:01:27 Side B: Track 5
The group singing on Track 11 is called Mandinda and was performed by visitors from eastern Arnhem Land towards the end of my field work. I have no information about it.
12
Djanggawon ceremony [RESTRICTED] 0:02:11 Side B: Track 6
I recorded the singing on Track 12 later still during a Djanggawon ceremony, another eastern rite with which I was unfamiliar. The booming sound was produced through a didjeridu some twelve feet long (Djungguwan), painted with several representations of Water Goanna (Djerga). [SECRET]

Copyright 2002-2006 J.H. Burrows and Peter Lister