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Songs Of Arnhem Land (AKA Songs From Arnhem Land)
Artist/Collector:	Lester Hiatt
Label Information:	Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies (AIAS): AIAS 6
Media Type:	LP
Year:	Recorded 1958-1960, released 1966
Availability:	Out of print

Notes: The purpose of this disc is to make available to musicologists raw material collected during an investigation whose orientation was mainly sociological. Between 1958 and 1960 my wife and I spent twenty months at Maningrida, a Government settlement on the mouth of the Liverpool River in northern Arnhem Land. The main groups in residence were the Gunavidji, Nagara, and Burara ("Burara" is a term originally used by people in eastern Arnhem Land for two groups who knew themselves as "Gidjingali" and "Gunadba".), but also present were numbers of Gunbalang, Gunwinggu, Gungoragoni, Janjango, and Djinang. The previous distribution of these tribes is indicated on the accompanying map.

Anthropologists for some time have been aware of cultural differences between eastern and western Arnhem Land. The transition occurs among the Nagara, eastern members of whom tend to associate with the Burara, western members with the Gunavidji. I have included music of both cultures and shall indicate later some of the distinguishing features. But my research aims demanded detailed investigations within one tribe rather than a study of regional variations. I chose the Burara, whose music consequently I know best. Even here I neglected aspects that did not seem directly relevant to my main task.

Side A is eastern Arnhem Land camp music of the Blyth River area; most of side B is western Arnhem Land camp music of the Liverpool River area (although, as I shall explain later, the opening song is eccentric). A few examples of men's secret music complete the second side.

SIDE A

The Burara know seven song cycles (manigai) that they believe ghosts of the dead composed for performance at mortuary rites. Each cycle has a different name, set of verses, and melodic structure. Folk say that the songs were learnt during dreams in which the sleeper's spirit visited his deceased relatives, but no one knows whereabouts this happened. It seems that manigai (a species of the north-eastern Arnhem Land bunggal (See Elkin, A. P., "Arnhem Land Music", Oceania, Vols. XXXIV-XXVI, 1953, p. 97 and 1955, p. 134.)) have been spreading westward, probably through clans extending joint ownership to western neighbours as a gesture of friendship.

Every Burara patri-clan shares, with certain others, one and one only of the seven cycles. The joint owners belong to the same moiety and in every case include people other than Burara. Thus five Burara clans of Dua moiety share the Gada song cycle with certain Djinang clans and possibly others further east. The joint owners see themselves as having a common bond (manngadaba manigai arabirawo means 'We have the one mortuary song") and are often trading partners.

Each song has 20 to 40 verses about different totems. A few are totems that created sites on estates of some of the joint owners (White Cockatoo, Crocodile, etc.), but most are not associated with any locality (North-west Monsoon, Evening Star, etc.). Some verses in different songs of the same moiety refer to the same totems but in different words.

Song words are of three types: (a) Words used in ordinary discourse, such as djirimula, a sea-gull. These occur infrequently. (b) Words with analogues in ordinary discourse. Boiboi is a song word, whereas "bara aboiboidjinga" in everyday discourse means "the north-west monsoon is about to blow"; again, wonggo occurs in the Crow song series and means "the speech of the Crows", whereas in ordinary discourse "speech" is wengga (c) Words that are believed to belong to the special language of the dead. They form the largest proportion of words in songs but neither occur in ordinary discourse nor have meanings. Their main function seems to be rhythmical. Early in my investigations I over-taxed the patience of a man from whom I was trying to extract word-for-word translations. After ten minutes or so, he drew on his pipe, blew out the smoke, and said: "Look, these words belong to the spirits of the dead. Maybe my grandfather or great-grandfather knew what they mean. I don't".

The performers necessarily comprise a singer accompanied by a didjeridu player but normally include several men singing in unison with a leader. The people acknowledge one individual as the foremost exponent of each cycle and seek his services even if he belongs to a distant community. But there are others who can take his place, and most men know their own songs well enough to give support. A few, considering themselves to have little musical talent, prefer to beat time or simply listen.

The seven outstanding song leaders in 1960 were old men with good voices who had applied themselves to the task of learning perfectly the words, melodies, and rhythms. Several were Burara, the rest men from further east. When they visited other communities, younger local leaders deferred to them. The position of song leader is not hereditary, and consecutive occupants do not necessarily belong to the same clan.

The Burara practise double disposal of their dead. First they bury the corpse in a shallow grave or expose it on a tree platform. A few hours later men brush those who have been near the body with leaves. Then after a week or so members of the deceased's community burn some of his possessions and pour water over his close relatives. Months later folk recover the desiccated bones and bring them back into the community. A close relative retains the bones for several years. Finally they are placed in a hollow-log coffin, which is buried or left standing upright in the ground.

Throughout the rites people sing the deceased's song cycle, and at the end of each phase the leader intones the names of all the owning clans. The supporting singers are mostly owners but often include others of the same moiety who know the song almost as well as their own and wish to pay their respects. Songs of one moiety are never sung by men of the other, nor performed during their mortuary rites.

Women dance but do not sing. They tend to be best acquainted with movements appropriate to the song of their own clan but are familiar with others and are allowed to dance to songs of either moiety.

Manigai are sung at certain stages in initiation ceremonies. They are also performed around the camp fire for entertainment.

SIDE B

The first three tracks on this side record songs typical of western Arnhem Land, which are sung largely for entertainment around the camp fire. Burara men often paid for their performance prior to and during circumcision ceremonies. (Western Arnhem Land tribes do not practise circumcision). The songs, referred to by the generic term borg (gunborg in the Gunwinggu language), do not appear to have the long tradition and intimate connection with mythology of the eastern Arnhem Land manigai. Neither are they the property of particular clans. In the main they Are creations of the individuals who sing them, though to what extent each song is original or is derived from previous compositions is an open question. A borg singer usually explains that he learnt his song from spirits of the dead during a dream and is unable to give much meaning to its verbal content. He alone sings the song and is regularly accompanied by the same didjeridu player and rhythm-beaters.

Track Number

Track Title

Track Time

Notes

Djambidj Song Cycle (Northwest Monsoon, 1-3, White cockatoo, 4-5, and Crow, 6)

0:05:55

Side A: Track 1
Song cycle: Djambidj
Moiety: Dua
Singer:� Angabarabara

The Djambidj cycle contains verses about some 20 totems. This track records three verses selected from the series on North-west Monsoon (Bara), two from White Cockatoo (Ngalilag), and one from Crow (Maralgara). I shall summarize the mythological backgrounds and give the words of the first verses. I shall also give English translations based on informants' translations of verses into the Burara of everyday discourse. It is to be understood that informants' translations are not statements of literal meanings (as many song words have no equivalents in ordinary speech) but elaborations stimulated by verbal cues in a non-grammatical setting. The words evoke rather than state a mythological narrative.

(i) North-west Monsoon (Bara); Verses 1, 2, 3.

Towards the end of the dry season two Eels arise from the sea and remark on the absence of wind. They both spit, and the small wind created informs Bara that it is time for him to come. He appears as a black cloud on the horizon, clenching a dilly-bag between his teeth like a warrior going into battle, and produces the north-west monsoon by farting.

woda boi-boi janei woda boi-boi janei		Bara is about to come.
madjidja gulabogbog		Bara clenches a dilly-bag between his teeth like a warrior going into battle.
djirimula manbargbarg		The sea-gull is caught up and taken by the wind.
boja malar-malar		The big wind blows.
bolwara nguli mara boi-boi janei		Bara is coming to you, members of the Bolwara clan. (Bolwara is one of the joint owners of the Djambidj song cycle).
wunimil gaiguradala		Alternative names of Bara (though not used in ordinary discourse).
boja malar-malar		The big wind blows.
- - -		Meaningless sound - the singer said he was just filling in.
bolwara nguli mara boi-boi janei		Bara is coming to you, members of the Bolwara clan.
adjamburadja gulabogbog		Bara stands as a black cloud on the horizon. ("Gulabogbog" is the name of Bara's clan).
ga-ga-ga		Spirits of the dead.
djirimula manbargbarg		The sea-gull is caught up and taken by the wind.
angunumba jalarialei		Clan names.
ngandjuwa		Totemic site at Cape Stewart associated with one of the joint owners of Djambidj.
boi-boi janei		Bara is about to come.
gulabogbog adjamburadja		Bara stands as a black cloud on the horizon.

(ii) White Cockatoo (Ngalilag); Verses 4, 5.

This totem lives at Cape Stewart near three others: Hollow-log Coffin, Stingray, and Didjeridu. The first resides in a mangrove forest, the second in a hole under the ground, and the third beneath a spring of its own creation. The four regularly communicate (one native said they talk to each other like white people on the telephone). From time to time spirits of the dead play the Didjeridu and sing Djambidj, while White Cockatoo and Hollow-log Coffin dance. Stingray stays in his hole.

wangurunga goja		Wangurunga is an alternative name for White Cockatoo.
gulaba radja		No meaning.
ngwar-ngwar woria		"Come, come", say spirits of the dead to a flock of white cockatoos.
mamala djamada		No meaning.
gulgulnga		White Cockatoo's birth-place.
ngaldjiba goja		White Cockatoo's home.
mamala djamada		No meaning.
djambara buradjarina		No meaning.
ngaldjiba goja		White Cockatoo's home.
manila ngaldjana		No meaning.
ngwar-ngwar woria		"Come, Come", say spirits of the dead to a flock of white cockatoos.
raradjinga goja		White Cockatoo eats a vegetable root (raradja in ordinary speech).
gulgulnga		White Cockatoo's birth-place.
djambara buradjarina		No meaning.
molomoloroja		White Cockatoo grows from a babe in the nest to a bird capable of flying. (molo means 'bigger" in ordinary speech).
rulanga goja		White Cockatoo perches in a casuarina tree (rula in ordinary speech).
gararag-gararag		White Cockatoo raises his yellow crest (gara-gara in ordinary speech).
ngaldjiba goja		White Cockatoo's home.
ngarg-ngarg		White Cockatoo's call.
wangurunga goja		Alternative name for White Cockatoo.
gulaba radja		No meaning.
mamala djamada		No meaning.
gulgulnga		White Cockatoo's birth-place.

(iii) Crow (Maralgara); Verse 6.

Hollow-log Coffin also lives in the sky where he is identified among a particular constellation. The stars around him are a flock of dancing i.e. twinkling) Crows. The wag wag wag sound made by crows (who pick flesh from bodies exposed on tree-platforms) occurs as part of a chant sung during purification rites after a death.

dawara njelar-njelar		The Crows play (-dawaradj- is "to play" in ordinary speech).
gaja baranga		No meaning.
dawara njelar-njelar		The Crows play.
gaja baranga		No meaning.
golba barira		No meaning.
bojanga budja		No meaning.
baigaradalga		No meaning.
wonggo		The language of the Crows (wengga is "language" in ordinary speech).
maraidjingo		Alternative name of Hollow-log Coffin.
rulunga		The Crows perch in a casuarina tree.
dawara njelar-njelar		The Crows play.
djinbango njinar		No meaning.
gora njelar		No meaning.
wonggo		The language of the Crows.
gaimar budja		No meaning.
djinbango njinar		No meaning.
gaimar budja		No meaning.
wag wag wag		The call of the Crows.
gora njelar-njelar		No meaning.
wonggo		The language of the Crows.
maraidjingo		Alternative name of Hollow-log Coffin.
guda bariri		No meaning.

Gabangora Song Cycle (Catfish and herring, 1-3, and Large Egret, 4)